Journal of Geodynamics 65 (2013)

Transkript

Journal of Geodynamics 65 (2013) 117–135
Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect
Journal of Geodynamics
journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/jog
Neogene–Quaternary evolution of the Manisa Basin: Evidence for variation in the
stress pattern of the İzmir-Balıkesir Transfer Zone, western Anatolia
Çağlar Özkaymak a,b,∗ , Hasan Sözbilir a , Bora Uzel a
a
b
Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi, Mühendislik Fakültesi Jeoloji Mühendisliği Bölümü, Tınaztepe Yerleşkesi, 35160 Buca-İzmir, Turkey
Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Tınaztepe Yerleşkesi, 35160 Buca-İzmir, Turkey
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 14 December 2011
Received in revised form 30 May 2012
Accepted 1 June 2012
Available online 15 June 2012
Keywords:
Manisa Basin
Neogene–Quaternary
İzmir-Balıkesir Transfer Zone
Gediz Graben
Western Anatolia
a b s t r a c t
In this paper, we aim to identify the Neogene–Quaternary evolution of the Manisa Basin located in the
İzmir-Balıkesir Transfer Zone (İBTZ) which lies between the normal-fault-dominated West Anatolian
Extensional Province (WAEP) and the strike-slip-dominated North Aegean Region (NAR). The Manisa
Basin, which forms a connection with the Gediz Graben, underwent two-stage basin evolution, distinguished by an ancient and modern graben-fill. The ancient basin-fill is made up of a folded and
normal-to-reverse faulted and strike-slip-faulted Miocene volcano-sedimentary sequence. The younger
modern basin-fill is represented by the Quaternary Bahadır Formation comprising fluvial terrace deposits,
early–middle Pleistocene continental clastics of the Turgutlu Formation, alluvial/colluvial sediments of
late Pleistocene–early Holocene Emlakdere Formation, and Holocene alluvium.
Structural and stratigraphical data reveal that the basin was initially formed as a lacustrine basin
bounded by a volcanic ridge from the west; it was subsequently uplifted and deformed probably as a
result of Pliocene wrench-dominated strike-slip tectonics, which is characterised by NNW–SSE horizontal
3 and vertical 2 . Post-Miocene strike-slip faulting along the İBTZ occurred along a right-lateral shear
zone in the Manisa Basin. This suggests that some branches of the right-lateral movement of the North
Anatolian Fault Zone may continue into the WAEP. The youngest stage shows an extension-dominated
transtension with a NE–SW trending 3 and a vertical 1 . These results are consistent with progressive
deformation developed during late Pliocene and onwards wherein the axis of minimum horizontal stress
remained in the horizontal plane but the intermediate and maximum horizontal stress axes switched
position in the vertical plane. In addition, available palaeostress data for the Gediz Graben are consistent
with the pure extension in the eastern and middle part of the graben and with the wrench-to-extensiondominated transtension in the western part, where the Manisa Basin is located. This indicates a NE–SW
trending segment boundary zone forming the western end of the E–W trending Gediz Graben.
© 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
One of the most well known and best-studied E–W trending
depression in the West Anatolian Extensional Province (WAEP)
is the Gediz Graben (also known as the Alaşehir Graben), which
has formed a NNE–SSW extension since the early Miocene (Fig. 1)
(Çiftçi and Bozkurt, 2010 and references therein). The modern Gediz
Graben lies in the NW–SE direction between Sarıgöl and Salihli and
was separated into three depressions—the Kemalpaşa, Manisa and
Gölmarmara basins—towards the west during the period after the
late Miocene (Fig. 1).
∗ Corresponding author at: Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi, Mühendislik Fakültesi Jeoloji
Mühendisliği Bölümü, Tınaztepe Yerleşkesi, 35160 Buca-İzmir, Turkey.
Tel.: +90 232 3017345; fax: +90 232 4531129.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (Ç. Özkaymak),
[email protected] (H. Sözbilir), [email protected] (B. Uzel).
0264-3707/$ – see front matter © 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jog.2012.06.004
The tectonic evolution of the Gediz Graben between Sarıgöl
and Salihli is well defined and related to the formation of
two extensional episodes that exhibit differences in stress patterns and deformation styles (Bozkurt and Sözbilir, 2004). The
first period was involved in the exhumation of the Menderes
Massif rocks in the footwall of a low-angle normal fault (detachments) and synchronous deposition of Miocene continental clastics
in the hanging-wall (Hetzel et al., 1995; Emre, 1996; Emre
and Sözbilir, 1997; Koçyiğit et al., 1999; Yılmaz et al., 2000;
Sözbilir, 2001, 2002; Çiftçi and Bozkurt, 2008, 2009). During
the second episode, the predominantly E–W-trending grabens
were formed by the high-angle normal faults. A recent study
by Sözbilir et al. (2011) in the Kemalpaşa Basin suggested that
the basin was formed during the Quaternary period on the
ancient Miocene basin-fill dominated by a NE–SW trending extension. However, to the best of our knowledge, this is the first
study to investigate the neotectonic evolution of the Manisa
Basin.
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Ç. Özkaymak et al. / Journal of Geodynamics 65 (2013) 117–135
Fig. 1. (a) Simplified tectonic map of the Aegean region showing major neotectonic structures and neotectonic provinces. Note that the İzmir Balıkesir Transfer Zone (İBTZ)
is a structural boundary between the normal-fault-dominated West Anatolian Extensional Province (WAEP) and the strike-slip-dominated North Aegean Region (NAR).
NAFZ, North Anatolian Fault Zone; IBTZ, İzmir Balıkesir Transfer Zone; AA, Aegean Arc; CA, Cyprean Arc (modified from Bozkurt, 2001). (b) Simplified tectonic map showing
the main fault system of western Anatolia (modified from Sözbilir et al., 2011 and reference therein). (c) Geological map of İzmir area (complied from Uzel et al., 2012;
Sözbilir et al., 2011; Özkaymak et al., 2011; Bozkurt and Sözbilir, 2006; Kaya, 1979; Konak, 2002 and this study). 1974-İzmir earthquake, Ms : 5.5 (Zanchi and Angelier, 1993);
1992-Doğanbey earthquake, Mw : 6.0 (Benetatos et al., 2006); 2003-Urla earthquake, M: 5.7 (Benetatos et al., 2006; Aktar et al., 2007); and 2005-Sığacık Bay earthquakes with
magnitudes of M: 5.7, 5.8 and 5.9 (Benetatos et al., 2006; Aktar et al., 2007; Sözbilir et al., 2009). Abbreviations: GuFZ, Güzelhisar Fault Zone; MeFZ, Menemen Fault Zone;
KyFZ, Karşıyaka Fault Zone; SFZ, Seferihisar Fault Zone; OFZ, Orhanlı Fault Zone; IFZ, İzmir Fault Zone; KF, Kemalpaşa Fault Zone; SuFZ, Sütçüler Fault Zone; MFZ, Manisa Fault
Zone, KFZ, Kaleköy Fault Zone; MF, Maltepe Fault; BF, Bahadır Fault; KeFZ, Kepenekli Fault Zone; DFZ, Dilek Fault Zone; TF, Tirkeş Fault; NF, Nuriye Fault; HaFZ, Halitpaşa
Fault Zone; UB, Urla Basin; CB, Cumaovası Basin; AB, Akhisar Basin; KoB, Kocaçay Basin; KB, Kemalpaşa Basin; MP, Menemen Plain.
Although the southern margin of the Manisa Basin is controlled
by the well-known Manisa Fault Zone (MFZ), structural properties
and kinematic analyses of the western and northern margins of
the basin have not yet been studied. Characteristics of the western
margin of the Manisa Basin are contested and generally fall into two
categories: (1) The topographically NE-trending straight line (the
KFZ, Fig. 1) is defined by Kaya (1979) as a growth fault that corresponds to the Akhisar depression. (2) According to Şengör et al.
(1985) and Emre et al. (2005), the western margin of the Manisa
Basin is controlled by a sinistral strike-slip transfer zone. However, the aforementioned studies lack field evidence to assess the
fault type. In this study, we have mapped the faults that developed
and deformed the Manisa Basin, many of which were previously
essentially unmapped. Herein, we also document field evidence
for stratigraphic and kinematic agents indicating the neotectonic
evolution of the Manisa Basin. In order to do this, we conducted
field-based studies comprising (1) the mapping of geological structures at a scale of 1/25 000, (2) investigation of the stratigraphic
position and sedimentologic features of basin-fill units, and (3)
documentation of outcrop-scale faults and their kinematic relationships. Finally, all available stratigraphic and structural data to
indicate lateral variation were interpreted on the basis of basin-fill
stratigraphy and results of palaeostress analysis along the Gediz
Graben.
119
2008; Uzel and Sözbilir, 2008; Uzel et al., 2012; Özkaymak et al.,
2011). Focal mechanisms of recent earthquakes occurring within
the İBTZ (Fig. 1c) indicate the reactivation of a strike-slip fault under
the control of a N–S trending extensional regime (Fig. 1c) (Sözbilir
et al., 2009). The İBTZ decouples two differently extending terrains
– WAEP to the east and the North Aegean Region (NAR) to the west
(Ring et al., 1999; Sözbilir et al., 2011). The eastern part of the zone is
characterised by large-scale E–W trending basins such as the Büyük
Menderes, Küçük Menderes and Gediz Graben, whose development
had been influenced by E–W trending high-angle active normal
faults during the Plio-Quaternary (Yılmaz et al., 2000). On the other
hand, many NE-trending Quaternary basins such as the Cumaovası and Urla basins developed on the western termination of the
E–W trending basins; the development of these basins was dominated by NE-trending active strike-slip faults. The western edge
of the Cumaovası Basin is bounded by the NE-trending active dextral strike-slip Orhanlı Fault Zone (OFZ) (Uzel and Sözbilir, 2008),
to which the 6.0 magnitude 1992-Doğanbey earthquake (Fig. 1)
is attributed. The NE-trending active dextral strike-slip Seferihisar
Fault Zone (SFZ) responsible for the 5.7 magnitude 2003-Urla earthquake represents the eastern border of the transtensional Urla
Basin (Fig. 1) (Sözbilir et al., 2009). The focal mechanisms of recent
earthquakes that occurred in western Anatolia indicate that both
E–W-trending normal and NE–SW and NW–SE striking strike-slip
faults (Fig. 1) are active in the region.
1.1. Neotectonic/seismotectonic framework of the region
The West Anatolian Extensional Province (WAEP) is currently
experiencing an approximately N–S continental extension at a
rate of 30–40 mm/year (Oral et al., 1995; Le Pichon et al., 1995;
Bozkurt, 2001). The region is characterised by both NE–SW (e.g.,
Cumaovası, Urla, and Kocaçay basins) and E–W (e.g., Gediz, Küçük
Menderes, and Büyük Menderes grabens) trending Quaternary
basins and their basin-bounding active strike-slip and normal faults
(Fig. 1). The cause and origin of crustal extension in the Aegean
is explained by four debated models (Bozkurt, 2001); the most
widely accepted deformation model of the Anatolian crustal block
is associated with the tectonic escape of the block to the W–SW
towards the Aegean–Cyprean arc system, by major strike-slip faulting on the dextral North Anatolian Fault Zone (NAFZ) and sinistral
East Anatolian Fault Zone (EAFZ) (Fig. 1) (Dewey and Şengör,
1979; Şengör, 1987; Şengör et al., 1985). The back-arc spreading model explains the back-arc extension caused by the S–SW
migration of the Aegean trench system (McKenzie, 1978; Le Pichon
and Angelier, 1979; Meulenkamp et al., 1988). The orogenic collapse model proposes that extension in western Turkey began in
the late Oligocene–early Miocene and is related to the spreading and thinning of an over-thickened crust created by an earlier
Palaeogene compressional regime (Seyitoğlu and Scott, 1991, 1992,
1996). Finally, a two-stage graben model involves a Miocene–early
Pliocene orogenic collapse stage and a Plio-Quaternary westward
tectonic escape stage (Koçyiğit et al., 1999). Global Positioning System (GPS) measurements reveal that the WAEP moves westwards
with counter clockwise rotation with respect to Eurasian Plate.
The westwards movement increases from 20 mm/year in central
Anatolia to 40 mm/year near the Aegean Arc (Barka and Reilinger,
1997; Mueller et al., 1997; Reilinger et al., 1997; Altıner et al.,
1999; Mcclusky et al., 2000; Nyst and Thatcher, 2004). Recent studies reveal the presence of an intermittently active transfer zone,
namely the İzmir-Balıkesir Transfer Zone (İBTZ) (Fig. 1), parallel to
the SW moving GPS vectors (Özkaymak and Sözbilir, 2008; Uzel
and Sözbilir, 2008; Sözbilir et al., 2011; Uzel et al., 2012). The İBTZ
is considered as a deep crustal transform fault zone during the late
Cretaceous that later acted as a transtensional transfer fault zone
during the Neogene (Okay and Siyako, 1993; Okay et al., 1996;
Ring et al., 1999; Sözbilir et al., 2008, 2011; Özkaymak and Sözbilir,
2. The Manisa Basin
The Manisa Basin (Bozkurt and Sözbilir, 2006) was formerly
referred to as ‘the western part of the Gediz Graben’ (e.g., Paton,
1992; Seyitoğlu and Scott, 1996; Hakyemez et al., 1999; Koçyiğit
et al., 1999; Bozkurt, 2003; Emre et al., 2005) and is also known as
the ‘Manisa Half Graben’ (e.g., Kaya et al., 2004). The modern Manisa Basin is an L-shaped asymmetric basin, bounded in the west by
Yuntdağı High and in the south by Spildağı High (Fig. 2).
2.1. Stratigraphy
The lithostratigraphic units defined and mapped on the basis
of observable rock characteristics range from latest Cretaceous to
recent in age. We classify the units under three main categories –
pre-basin fill, ancient basin-fill, and modern basin-fill (Fig. 3). The
pre-basin fill units are only briefly described; however, we document the detailed stratigraphy of the ancient and modern basin-fill
units in order to understand late Cenozoic history of the basin.
2.1.1. Pre-basin-fill units
Pre-basin fill units in the study area are represented by
the Bornova Flysch Zone (BFZ), which is mainly composed of
mountain-forming blocks of Mesozoic limestones, cherts, submarine volcanics, and serpentinites embedded in a latest Cretaceus to
Paleocene matrix of sheared sandstone and shale (Fig. 3) (Erdoğan,
1990; Okay et al., 1996). This zone forms a 50–90-km wide and
230-km-long tectonic zone between the Menderes Massif and the
İzmir-Ankara suture and has undergone significant but very low
metamorphic grade Alpine deformation (Erdoğan, 1990; Okay and
Siyako, 1993; Okay and Altıner, 2007).
2.1.2. Ancient basin-fill units
The ancient basin fill units consist of the early–middle Miocene
Kızıldere Group, the early–middle Miocene Yuntdağı volcanic unit,
and the late Miocene Karadağ Group. The Kızıldere Group starts
with the reddish and greyish conglomerate alternating within a
sandy matrix (Fig. 3), which lies above the Bornova Flysch Zone
with an angular unconformity. The clasts of conglomerates are
120
Fig. 2. Geologic map of the Manisa Basin. Abbreviations: AH, Appak Horst; MFZ, Manisa Fault Zone; KFZ, Kaleköy Fault Zone; MF, Maltepe Fault; TFZ, Tekeliler Fault Zone;
HFZ, Halitli Fault Zone; BeFZ, Belenyenice Fault Zone; BF, Bahadır Fault; KeFZ, Kepenekli Fault Zone; NF, Nuriye Fault; HaFZ, Halitpaşa Fault; TF, Tirkeş Fault; DFZ, Dilek Fault
Zone; GFZ, Gürle Fault Zone; KaF, Karaçay Fault; TuF, Tugutalp Fault.
subrounded to rounded and poorly to moderately sorted; most
were derived from the Bornova Flysch Zone. The sequence grades
upward into sandstone and mudstone with dark-grey coal interlayers and limestone alternation. They are moderately folded and
deformed by NE- and NW-trending strike-slip faulting. Furthermore, the large-scale soft sediment deformation is distinctive
around the middle and upper portion of the Kızıldere Group.
Upwards in the sequence, the distinctive characteristics include
thick-bedded yellowish-brown lacustrine limestones. The Kızıldere
Group can be interpreted as an alluvial to fluvial sequence overlain
by lacustrine carbonates. The conformably overlying Yuntdağı volcanic unit consists of pyroclastic rocks and lava flows (Fig. 3). The
lower part of the sequence is represented by light-coloured tuffs.
In this part, interlayers of thin-bedded lacustrine limestones of the
Kızıldere Group are the most prominent evidence of the conformity
between the lower Kızıldere Group and the volcano-sedimentary
sequence. To the upper part, pyroclastic coarse andesitic breccias
overlie the tuff unit. The uppermost part of the succession is represented by lava flows comprising the plateau-like topographic
domains in the area. Age of the unit is assigned to be lower-middle
Miocene (Borsi et al., 1972; Savaşçın, 1978; Ercan et al., 1985, 1996).
The Yuntdağı volcanic unit is unconformably overlain by a fluvial and lacustrine alternation of the Karadağ Group that covers
large areas in the Manisa Basin (Figs. 2 and 3). The dominant lithology of the lower part of the group is made up of grey-coloured,
thick bedded, poorly to moderately sorted conglomerates embedded in a sandy matrix. Clasts are in a range of pebble sizes and
were mainly derived from the Yuntdağı volcanic unit and Bornova
121
Fig. 3. Generalised lithostratigraphic columnar section of the Manisa Basin.
Flysch Zone. The conglomerates alternate with grey/greenish
coloured sandstone and claystone. The sequence grades upward
into thin bedded limestone and cross-bedded sandstone alternation. In the middle part, grey coloured, cross-bedded sandstones
are dominant. Upward in the sequence, the group ends with a
yellowish-brown lacustrine limestone level. The upper part of
the Neogene units, exposed throughout the MFZ, is mapped and
documented by Bozkurt and Sözbilir (2006) and Özkaymak and
Sözbilir (2008). According to Bozkurt and Sözbilir (2006), the unit
is correlated with the late Miocene lacustrine sediments exposed
throughout western Anatolia (e.g., Hetzel et al., 1995; Yusufoğlu,
1996; Yılmaz et al., 2000).
2.1.3. Modern basin-fill units
The Quaternary stratigraphic record of the Manisa Basin is represented by terrestrial deposits of fluvial, colluvial and alluvial origin.
2.1.3.1. Turgutlu Formation. The Turgutlu Formation (Paton, 1992)
consists of cross-bedded sandstones, including fine gravel lenses
interbedded with mudstones (Fig. 3). The sedimentary structures and lithologic features include coarse to medium sand with
large cross-beds; point-bar sequences comprising fine sands and
muddy clayey flood plain sediments indicate that the formation is
deposited in a meandering river system, according to alluvial river
classification (Schumm, 1986; Schumm et al., 2002; Miall, 1996,
2000).
Paton (1992) estimated that the age of the sediments is younger
than the Neogene sequence. This suggestion is justified by a recent
study; the presence of macro mammalian fossils in the sandy sediments of the Turgutlu Formation suggests an early to middle
Pleistocene age for the faunal assemblage of the formation (Mayda,
2002). The unit lies on Neogene sediments with an angular unconformity and is overlain with an angular unconformity by upper
Holocene colluvial/alluvial fans. Continental clastics of the Turgutlu
Formation, covering large areas in the southeastern part of the
Spildağı High Range, are now being uplifted relative to the Manisa
Basin floor (Fig. 2) (Paton, 1992).
2.1.3.2. Bahadır Formation. During the field studies, we observed
several stepped terrace landforms and mapped the well-developed
systems of fluvial terrace deposits outcropping in an 8-km-long and
up to ∼2.5-km-wide N–S striking tectonic corridor in the northern
part of the Manisa Basin (Fig. 2). The observed fluvial terrace facies
can be differentiated into two major groups: conglomerate deposits
122
Fig. 4. Geologic cross sections showing stratigraphic and structural relationships of lithostratigraphic units exposed in the Manisa Basin. (a) Section A–A is the NW–SE
striking section illustrating the angular unconformity between the early–middle Miocene Yundağı volcanic unit and the late Miocene Karadağ Group. The section also shows
the uplifting of the pre-basin unit by cutting the lacustrine sequence of the Karadağ Group. (b) Section B–B is taken from the Spildağı High Range to Çamköy village located
in the western border of the Manisa Basin, showing the listric normal fault geometry of the MFZ and the depression filled by modern basin-fill. (c) Sections C–C and D–D
illustrate the folding geometry in the Appak Horst. See Figs. 2, 5 and 7 for the location of cross sections.
and abandoned floodplain deposits. The conglomerate deposits are
composed almost exclusively of poorly consolidated sandy pebble
to cobble gravel and block, which were derived from the volcanic
rocks. These coarse-grained deposits are of various thicknesses and
comprise various sized gravels, and blocks overlie the sediments
of the Karadağ Group with an erosive scoured base. The gravel and
blocks are usually well-rounded and the interstices are filled mainly
with a grey sand. The terrace deposits are typically clast supported,
with either an openwork or sandy matrix. The floodplain deposits
are characterised by overbank deposits, experienced during flooding and periods of high discharge. Light reddish-brown coloured
overbank silty mud generally overlies the conglomerates. The unit
is overlain with an angular unconformity by the Holocene alluvium.
The age of the Bahadır Formation is assigned to be Quaternary (MTA,
2008).
2.1.3.3. Emlakdere Formation. The southwestern part of the Manisa
Basin is represented by late Pleistocene–early Holocene colluvial
sediments of the Emlakdere Formation (Özkaymak and Sözbilir,
2008; Özkaymak et al., 2011). The Emlakdere Formation comprises
unsorted crudely stratified gravel and cobble–pebble conglomerate
alternating with several palaeosol layers. Özkaymak et al. (2011)
provide detailed sedimentologic measurements from outcrops that
suggest the observed sedimentary facies can be differentiated into
four major groups: rock fall, debris fall, debris flow, and palaeosol.
2.1.3.4. Holocene alluvium. Holocene alluvium is the final product
of the modern Manisa Basin. This unit is composed of coarsegrained alluvial-fan and fine-grained fluvial deposits. On the
Manisa Basin, the Kum River flowing from the Akhisar Basin in a
southwestward direction, the Gediz River flowing from the E–W
striking Gediz Graben, and the Nif River from the Kemalpaşa Basin
are the main fluvial systems corresponding to the fluvial sedimentation of the basin. In the southern and western edges of the
basin, the facies of the flood plains inter-finger with the alluvial fan
deposits and represent typical graben-fill (Fig. 3).
2.2. Stratigraphic relationships and deformational pattern of the
basin-fill units
Four geological cross sections were measured in the field in
order to show stratigraphic relationships and deformational patterns of the basin-fill units. The section A–A (Fig. 4a) is taken from
the Yuntdağı High Range to Boz Hill, where the stratigraphic relationships of the ancient basin fill units are observed. Along the
section, the Yuntdağı volcanic unit, consisting of andesitic pyroclastic rocks, is unconformably overlain by a basal conglomerate
of the Karadağ Group. The basal conglomerate is made up of well
rounded clasts derived from the rocks of the Bornova Flysch Zone
and Yuntdağı volcanic unit. Upward and southeastward of the section, folded and normal to strike-slip faulted lacustrine clastic and
carbonate beds of the Karadağ Group can be observed. Around Boz
Hill, an intra-basin high comprising rocks of the Bornova Flysch
Zone is exposed along the NW–SE trending normal faults. Towards
the southeast, lacustrine sedimentary rocks of the Karadağ Group
are unconformably overlain by the Holocene alluvium of the modern basin-fill units (Fig. 4a).
The section B–B (Fig. 4b) is taken from the Spildağı High Range
to the western border of the Manisa Basin (Fig. 2). From Anadağ to
Manisa city, rock units exposed in the footwall of the MFZ can be
observed. There, patches of the late Miocene Karadağ Group outcropping in different elevations lie unconformably on the rock of
the Bornova Flysch Zone. From Manisa city to Çamköy village, a
hanging wall of the MFZ is made up of Holocene alluvium of the
modern basin fill sediments. The section ends with lacustrine carbonates of the Karadağ Group that are unconformably overlain by
the Holocene alluvium.
Sections C–C and D–D reveal the folding pattern of the Karadağ
Formation between Andıklı Hill and Akhisar-Manisa Road (Fig. 4c).
Both sections give solid clues for the folded and reverse to normal faulted nature of the ancient basin fill sediments. Along the
section C–C , after a faulted contact with the rocks of the Bornova
Flysch Zone, an alternation of lacustrine clastic and carbonate beds
of the Karadağ Group shows a series of large open folds with
moderately dipping limbs. West of Gözlet village, the NW-dipping
limb of the first fold is cut and displaced by reverse and normal
faults. At the beginning of the section D–D , after a fault cuts the
NW-dipping strata of limestone, a well developed anticline with
relatively steeply dipping limbs can be observed. The core of the
anticline is made up of polymict conglomerate beds forming the
basal part of the Karadağ Group. Towards Tirkeş, after a thick
section of southeast dipping lacustrine clastic and carbonates alternations, a syncline and anticline pair is observed at the end of the
section.
2.3. Structural geology
Structures shaping the Manisa Basin fall into four main categories: (1) reverse faults, (2) folds, (3) strike-slip faults, and
(4) normal faults. We identified numerous locations where the
sense of slip along brittle faults can be determined using welldocumented structural criteria (Hancock, 1985; Means, 1987;
Petit, 1987; Stewart and Hancock, 1991). The sense of movement
along the faults was deduced from kinematic indicators, including
displaced marker horizons, right-stepping, riedel shears and corrugations. Relative ages of the different sets of faults were established
by cross-cutting and offset relationships. The observed faults were
123
grouped into two sets that represent distinct styles or periods of
faulting, herein referred to as D1 and D2.
2.3.1. Reverse faults
The records of reverse faulting are observed within the uplifted
late Miocene lacustrine sediments, especially in the northern part
of the study area. One of the well-preserved contractional domains
is analysed in the southeast of Tirkeş district in the Appak Horst
(Figs. 2 and 5).
Several well-exposed Tirkeş Reverse Fault (TRF) planes strike
between N10◦ and E60◦ , with an average 60–78◦ dip and rakes of
slip lines averaging 35–78◦ (Fig. 6a–c). The reverse fault in Tirkeş
district can be followed about 250 m in the NE–SW direction and
records a maximum of 110 cm of displacement (Figs. 2 and 6a).
In that locality, several asymmetric anticline and syncline axes
with the same orientation can be observed (Figs. 4c and 5). Other
contractional structures are observed in the uplifted late Miocene
lacustrine sediments along the footwall block of the Halitli Fault
Zone (HFZ) in the western part of the Manisa Basin. We observed
and measured numerous small-scale reverse faults showing similar
strikes with the TRF (average strike/dip/rake: N25◦ E/40◦ SE/84◦ N)
(Fig. 6d and e). These structures are also cut and deformed by sinistral strike-slip faults as is seen on the NE-trending folds.
2.3.2. Folds
The late Miocene sediments have been deformed into a series
of anticlines and synclines exposed mostly in the Appak Horst and
partly in the western part of the Manisa Basin (Figs. 4c and 5). The
Appak Horst is represented by a succession of open meso-scale folds
that have a NE–SW vertical axial plane with moderately to steeply
dipping limbs. Stereographic plots of pole to bedding revealed a
phase of NW–SE local contraction. Field observations reveal that
these folds are cut and deformed by NW-trending oblique-slip normal faults and sinistral strike-slip faults.
2.3.3. Strike-slip faults
These faults occur especially at the southern and western margin
of the basin. Some of these fault types were also mapped on the
northern part of the basin. Two distinctly oriented fault sets are
observed: NE–SW and NW–SE striking.
The NE-striking (average N30◦ E), approximately 30-km-long
dextral strike-slip fault zone located between the Akgedik village
to the southwest and Çaltepe village to the northwest along the
western edge of the Manisa Basin, is defined and described as
the Kaleköy Fault Zone (KFZ). The KFZ forms a structural contact
between the volcanic succession of the Yuntdağı High Range and
the unconformably overlying lacustrine sediments of the Karadağ
Group in the western part of the Manisa Basin (Figs. 7 and 8).
Fragments of the KFZ form a structural lineament with NE–SW
orientation and are easily identifiable on aerial photographs and
satellite images.
The KFZ consists of two fault segments. The northern segment
consists of large-scale dextral strike-slip deformation features,
including strike-slip step-overs, transtensional relay ramps, pullapart basins, releasing and restraining bends, fault plane markers
and systematic displacements of drainage channels (Fig. 7). There,
the fault zone is about 5 km wide, and consists of three main fault
fragments, which are connected to each other with releasing rightlateral step-over zones (∼1 km wide) (Fig. 7). The longest fragment,
located between Üçpınar and Kaanköy villages, is approximately
10 km long. The fault zone exhibits nearly pure strike-slip character with a minor reverse component at its centre, around Kaleköy
village (Figs. 7 and 9). In addition, several overlap zones are represented by NW-striking normal faults, including dip-slip fault striae.
Fault plane measurements indicate the strike-slip faulting with
rake angles of 14–17◦ around Kaanköy.
124
Fig. 5. Detailed geologic map of the northern part of the Manisa Basin. Abbreviations: DFZ, Dilek Fault Zone; KeFZ, Kepenekli Fault Zone; TF, Tirkeş Fault; NF, Nuriye Fault.
Between Akgedik and Yağcılar villages, a series of horsetail
normal/oblique fault splays represent the morphologically deep
valleys at the southern termination of KFZ (Fig. 8). Fault plane indicators, including rake angle measurements between 20◦ and 38◦ S
indicate the oblique-normal faulting. In addition, the southeastflowing streams are laterally offset up to several metres along the
southern part of the KFZ, thereby providing strong evidence for
right-lateral displacement in the eastern part of Çullu Hill (Fig. 8).
However, some of these faults sinistrally deflect the Gediz River
channel and E–W trending faults along the deep valley between
Manisa and Menemen cities (Figs. 1 and 2). This indicates that
the NE-striking KFZ is a reactivated structure showing previous
dextral and subsequent sinistral motion along the southern part
(Fig. 8). Similarly, evidence for reactivation is also established on
the slip surfaces of the NE-striking Karaçay and Turgutalp faults
in the southern part of the Manisa Basin (Özkaymak and Sözbilir,
2008).
We observed and mapped well-preserved NE-trending (average N30◦ E) fault planes of the Tirkeş Fault (TF) with kinematic
indicators; rakes of 3–6◦ S indicate dextral strike-slip faulting with
a minor normal component between Koyunlu and Dilek villages.
The TF is a 8-km long strike-slip fault, and it forms a linear valley between the Manisa and Akhisar basins (Figs. 2 and 5). The
TF cuts the NW-trending Appak Horst and represents the eastern
margin of it. In the western part, Appak Horst is cut by another
NE-trending strike-slip fault. The Bahadır Fault (BF) is about 10 km
long, comprising several well-exposed fault planes. Along the fault,
scarp derived colluviums are observed in the north of Bahadır village (Fig. 2). The fault includes fault planes with dextral kinematic
indicators with a minor normal component. The fault planes striking an average of N10◦ –20◦ E and dipping 85–88◦ SE contain the fault
striae set with average rake angles of 15–22◦ S.
2.3.4. Normal faults
Numerous normal faults of variable sizes have been mapped
in the NW–SE direction, although some trend in the E–W direction. The southern border of the modern Manisa Basin is controlled
by the approximately 35 km long active Manisa Fault Zone (MFZ),
125
Fig. 6. Photographs showing field views from the NE-striking reverse faults. (a) Zone of the Tirkeş Reverse Fault (TRF) observed in the Appak Horst block. Note that hangingwall block is thrust up and over the footwall. The vertical offset is about 50 cm. (b) Another field view of the reverse fault cutting the late Miocene sediments in the Tirkeş
district and (c) close-up view of slip surface indicating the high angle slickenlines. See Fig. 5 for location of the TRF (L1). (d) Field view of the reverse fault observed in the
footwall block of the Halitli Fault Zone and (e) close-up view of slip surface indicating the nearly vertical slickenlines. See Fig. 7 for location (L2).
which exhibits prominent Quaternary fault scarps and significant morphologic variations (Fig. 2) (Bozkurt and Sözbilir, 2006;
Özkaymak and Sözbilir, 2008; Özkaymak et al., 2011). The MFZ is a
northeastward arched structure (Özkaymak et al., 2011) between
Turgutlu to the east and the town of Akgedik to the west (Fig. 1). For
the first time, huge slip surfaces along the Spildağı High mountain
front and the Quaternary limestone scree at the base of topographic
scarps were defined by Allen (1974). He suggested the presence
of Holocene normal faulting cutting the young deposits in the
southeastern part of the MFZ. Following the work of Allen, many
researchers observed out the Holocene deformations and dip-slip
normal character of the MFZ, consentaneously (Hancock and Barka,
1987; Paton, 1992; Emre et al., 2005; Bozkurt and Sözbilir, 2006;
Özkaymak and Sözbilir, 2008). According to the kinematic studies,
the Manisa Fault Zone contains three sets of striations that suggest
fault reactivation: an early phase of sinistral strike-slip, later dextral strike-slip, and a subsequent normal-slip movement (Bozkurt
and Sözbilir, 2006; Özkaymak and Sözbilir, 2008).
During the field studies, we observed and mapped many normal fault series in the northern edge of the Manisa Basin, and are
here named the Kepenekli Fault Zone (KeFZ), for the first time. The
zone deforms and cuts the late Miocene deposits exposed on the
southern edge of the Appak Horst and has characteristically WNWstriking and southwest dipping sense (Fig. 2). The KeFZ consists
of many N75◦ –80◦ W-striking parallel/sub-parallel dip slip normal
fault segments extending about 10 km in the north of the Manisa Basin between the Bahadır and Koyunlu villages. Polished fault
surfaces of the KeFZ include a fault striae set with rake angles
126
Fig. 7. Detailed geologic map of the western part of the Manisa Basin. Abbreviations: KFZ, Kaleköy Fault Zone; MF, Maltepe Fault; TFZ, Tekeliler Fault Zone; HFZ, Halitli Fault
Zone; BeFZ, Belenyenice Fault Zone.
between 82◦ and 90◦ indicating dip-slip faulting (Fig. 10a and b).
Similarly, we also mapped a NW-striking but northeast dipping
normal fault zone, which is here named the Dilek Fault Zone (DFZ),
along the northern mountain front of the Appak Horst. An average of N55◦ –60◦ W-striking and 65–70◦ NE dipping striated fault
planes have been observed along the KFZ. The striation set has
an average rake of 75–90◦ E. According to the geological mapping
studies in the region, we infer that numerous quasi-parallel normal faults of both the KeFZ and the DFZ are the most important
agents for the uplift of the northern Appak Horst after the late
Miocene.
The Nuriye Fault (NF) is another NW-striking structural element
in the northern edge of the Manisa Basin and was defined as a 8km-long fault in an active fault map of Turkey (MTA, 2008) (Fig. 2).
The fault strikes N70◦ W and shows kinematic evidence for normal
faulting, which is a structural contact between alluvial sediments
of the Quaternary Manisa Basin and the late Miocene lacustrine
limestone.
The Tekeliler Fault Zone (TFZ) is an approximately 3.5-km
long, 1.5-km wide and N45◦ W-striking normal fault zone that displays a linear NW-trending topographic valley (Fig. 7). On the
northeastern part, SE-dipping strata of the Miocene lacustrine
deposits and almost horizontal fluvial strata of basin-fill deposits
are tectonically juxtaposed along the TFZ. Northeastern and
southwestern normal faults form the small-scale NW-trending
horst between Sarma Creek and Tekeliler village. Between the
KFZ and the TFZ, we mapped many normal faults dipping
to the southwest. Their length ranges from 100 m to 2 km,
and they form step-like geometry, down-dipping towards the
southwest.
The Halitli Fault Zone (HFZ) is mapped between Boz Hill and
the NE-striking KFZ. It is a 1-km wide and 6-km long NWstriking normal fault zone between Halitli and Karayenice villages
(Fig. 7). Numerous quasi-parallel normal fault segments forming
step-like geometry are responsible for the formation of the NWstriking Halitli Horst (Fig. 7). Northeastward fault segments dipping
northeast and southwestern fault segments dipping southwest
cut and deform Neogene lacustrine sediments and pre-Neogene
basement rocks of the Bornova Flysch Zone (Fig. 10). Continuity of the northeastern segment of HFZ is not clear in the north,
but we were able to observe the southwestern segment of HFZ,
which turns to a N–S direction and connects to the KFZ at an
127
Fig. 8. Detailed geologic map of the southwestern part of the Manisa Basin. The numbers close to the black arrows representing strike-slip sense of faults show the fault
reactivation. Number 1 refers to previous movement of the KFZ as a dextral-strike slip-sense and number 2 refers to subsequent sinistral strike-slip sense of the fault.
Abbreviations: KFZ, Kaleköy Fault Zone; MF, Maltepe Fault; MFZ, Manisa Fault Zone; GFZ, Gürle Fault Zone.
oblique/strike-slip sense in the northwest. Some well-preserved
fault planes are exposed in the footwall of the HFZ in a roadcut, consisting of step-like geometry towards the hanging wall
and show fault planes dipping in the range of 45–65◦ with
rakes of 75–90◦ (Fig. 10). The fault zone also has several slickensided fault surfaces that indicate dextral strike-slip faulting.
Although no cross-cutting relationships exist between strike-slip
and dip slip slickenlines, the strike-slip may be related to the
pre-Quaternary tectonic deformation phase, which is discussed in
Section 3.
The Belenyenice Fault Zone (BeFZ) consists dominantly of NWstriking fault segments with an average length of 4 km between
Karadayı and Demirli Hill (Fig. 7). When compared to other NWstriking intra-basin faults, the dip of the fault planes of BeFZ is
steeper (dips are in the range of 75◦ and 88◦ ), the strike of the
fault is closer to the north (N20◦ –W30◦ ) and the rakes are measured in the range of 45–65◦ N. The southwestern fault segment
bifurcated to the northern termination, while the western part
represents the southern border of small-scale pull-apart depression where the eastern part connects with the dextral strike-slip
KFZ along Erikli Creek. We mapped small-scale normal fault splays
from the southern part of the segment with an average rake
of 85◦ .
The Maltepe Fault (MF) consists of three discrete NWstriking antitethic fault traces extending across the western
section of the MFZ (Fig. 2). On well-preserved average N70◦ Wstriking fault planes, the MF exhibits well preserved slip
data indicating normal faulting with a rake of 80◦ near the
Üçpınar village. Step-like geometry facing towards the basin
supplies a depositional environment for the materials carried
by the alluvial river. On the eastern part, the fault cannot be traced in the Quaternary alluvial/fluvial fan sediments,
whereas fault trace in the Miocene sediments is morphologically
prominent.
Characteristically, most of the NW-striking normal faults form
small-scale NW-trending horst and graben structures. Our field
observations and kinematic data show that most of these faults are
formed with a strike-slip sense before the Quaternary and were
reactivated as normal/oblique faults during Quaternary, similar to
the MFZ.
128
Fig. 9. (a) Photographs showing field views from the NE–SW-oriented strike-slip Kaleköy Fault Zone. A linear contact between Neogene volcanic and sedimentary rocks is
represented by the KFZ, see Fig. 7 for location (L3). (b) Fault plane of the KFZ and (c) close-up view of polished and striated fault surface displaying fault-related indicators
related to the dextral strike-slip faulting, see Fig. 7 for location (L4).
3. Kinematic analysis of fault-slip data
Detailed mapping of the Manisa Basin provides a good basis
for investigations of structural relationships. We have studied
the stress field orientations of mapped faults in order to determine the kinematic framework of faulting operated during the
Neogene–Quaternary evolution of Manisa Basin. We use structural
relationships between striations and fault-plane related structures
for age relations and sense of motion. In addition to the crosscutting and offset relationships, we also separate the data for the
fault slips that can develop under the same tectonic framework.
Data from 141 fault-slips in the Manisa Basin have been analysed, using the Angelier stress inversion method (Angelier, 1984,
1991, 1994) and computed using the software developed by
Hardcastle and Hills (1991). Four components of the reduced stress
tensor can be extracted from fault-slip data. These are the directions of the three principal stresses ( 1 > 2 > 3 ) and the relative
magnitudes for the principal stress axes, expressed by the axial
ratio = ( 2 − 1 )/( 3 − 1 ), with 0 < < 1 (Angelier, 1994). The
stress regime is determined by the nature of the vertical stresses:
extensional when 1 is vertical, strike-slip when 2 is vertical and
compressional when 3 is vertical. Delvaux et al. (1997) suggest
that the stress regimes also vary by function of the stress ratio,
which ranges from 0 to 1: radial extension ( 1 vertical, 0 < < 0.25),
pure extension ( 1 vertical, 0.25 < < 0.75), transtension ( 1 vertical, 0.75 < < 1 or 2 vertical, 1 > > 0.75), pure strike-slip ( 2
vertical, 0.75 > > 0.25), transpression ( 2 vertical, 0.25 > > 0 or 3
vertical, 0 < < 0.25), pure compression ( 3 vertical, 0.25 < < 0.75)
and radial compression ( 3 vertical, 0.75 < < 1).
The sense of slip along brittle faults was grouped into two
sets that represent distinct styles or periods of faulting, herein
referred to as phases 1 and 2. The older D1 phase is attributed
to the NNW–SSE extension associated with WSW–ENE contraction
followed by NE–SW extension. The youngest one is in the D2 deformation phase and is attributed to the current extensional tectonics
in west Anatolia that initiated during the Quaternary.
3.1. D1 phase/wrench-dominated deformation
The D1 phase is characterised by NE–SW and NW–SE strike-slip
faults, NE-striking reverse faults, and folds that cut and deformed
the Miocene volcanic and sedimentary rocks (Fig. 11 and Table 1).
The computed results of the inverse analysis of fault-slip measurements for the early phase of reverse faulting come from the
TRF and HRF (Fig. 11 and Table 1). The computed results of faultslip measurements along the TRF define steeply plunging 3 axes
(70◦ ), but gently plunging 2 axes (20◦ ). The orientation of the 1 is
128◦ /02◦ . In addition, the slip data indicating the phase of reverse
faulting on the NE-striking fault were also documented in the Halitli
district where the computed results of representative slip measurements define an approximately horizontal 1 (308◦ /01◦ ) and
2 axes (038◦ /00◦ ), whereas, 3 axes are close to vertical, plunging 89◦ . These results revealed a horizontal contractional stress
regime ( = 0.421–0.664) operated in NW–SE direction. Field observations and fault slip measurements indicate that NE–SW-trending
reverse faulting is cut by the NW–SE trending oblique-slip normal
and sinistral strike-slip faults. The fault-slip data collected from site
2 (S2) (Fig. 11 and Table 1) along the HFZ include nearly vertical 2
(75◦ ) trending 004◦ , whereas the 1 and 3 axes have attitudes
of 178◦ /15◦ and 268◦ /01◦ , respectively. Similarly, the fault slip data
along the strike-slip faults of the KFZ define an approximately vertical 2 (80◦ and 72◦ ) and almost horizontal 1 and 3 . The stress field
orientations along the fault suggest an approximately WSW–ENE
contraction associated with a NNW–SSE-directed extension, similar to the NE-trending Orhanlı Fault Zone (OFZ) (Uzel and Sözbilir,
2008) located southwest of the study area (Fig. 1). Site 6 (S6)
129
Fig. 10. (a) Field view from the Kepenekli Fault Zone, (b) close-up view of the fault plane showing the slickensides on the slip surface, indicating pure normal faulting with
rakes of 90◦ . See Fig. 5 for location (L5). (c) Views from the exhumed slip surfaces along the trace of the Halitli Fault Zone (HFZ), and (d) close-up views of slickensides on
the slip surface indicating normal faulting with high angle rakes, see Fig. 7 for location (L6). (e and f) Field photographs showing step-like geometry of the HFZ, see Fig. 7 for
location (L7 for southwestern section and L8 for northeastern section).
Table 1
Results of palaeostress analysis from measurements of slickensides in the study area (see Fig. 11 for locations).
Phase
Name of fault
Location no.
Nature of fault
Number of slip data
1
2
3
ANG
D1
TRF
HFZ
HRF
KFZ-1
KFZ-2
SF
DFZ
TF
MF
HFZ
BeFZ
KeFZ
DFZ
SF
S1
S2
S3
S4
S5
S6
S7
S8
S9
S10–11
S12
S13–14
S15
S16
Reverse
Strike-slip
Reverse
Strike-slip
Strike-slip
Strike-slip
Strike-slip
Strike-slip
Normal-slip
Normal-slip
Normal-slip
Normal-slip
Normal-slip
Oblique-slip
13
10
13
21
07
08
08
06
08
12
08
11
10
06
128/02
178/15
308/01
086/18
071/00
276/14
258/06
078/13
087/78
226/87
162/77
160/85
248/73
016/69
219/20
004/75
038/00
281/72
339/80
057/73
120/82
293/75
277/12
330/01
315/12
292/03
151/02
109/01
031/70
268/01
144/89
178/45
161/10
183/10
349/05
170/08
187/02
060/03
046/12
022/04
060/17
199/21
0.421
0.517
0.664
0.462
0.483
0.473
0.537
0.654
0.557
0.473
0.860
0.442
0.401
0.887
0.5
0.4
0.1
0.2
0.4
0.2
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.3
0.3
D2
130
Fig. 11. Palaeostress analyses carried out on the studied faults. Equal area lower hemisphere stereoplots illustrate fault-slip surface, slip direction and principal stress axis
orientation data and the position of principal stress axes. Great circles are fault surfaces, the arrows are striations (see Table 1 for details). See text for further discussion.
Palaeostress analyses data from the eastern part of the MFZ (S17) are taken from the Bozkurt and Sözbilir (2006).
(Fig. 11 and Table 1) includes kinematic data from the SF. The computed orientations of the principal stress axes 1 , 2 , and 3 are
276◦ /14◦ , 057◦ /73◦ , 183◦ /10◦ , respectively. The projection of the
fault-slip shows a strike-slip stress regime ( = 0.473). The faultslip data collected from site 7 (S7) (Fig. 11 and Table 1) along the
DFZ include nearly vertical 2 (82◦ ) trending 120◦ , whereas the 1
and 3 axes have attitudes of 258◦ /06◦ and 349◦ /05◦ , respectively.
The computed value of = 0.537 indicates that these stress tensors
are associated with pure strike-slip type deformation. According
to fault-slip data obtained from the TF (S8) (Fig. 11 and Table 1),
the calculated 1 trends 078◦ and plunges at 13◦ , whereas 2 and
3 axes have attitudes of 293◦ /75◦ and 170◦ /08◦ , respectively. The
result suggests a NNW–SSE extension associated with a WSW–ENE
contraction.
3.2. D2 phase/extension-dominated deformation
Tensors have been collected from NW–SE trending dip to
oblique slip normal faults that cut and displaced the late Miocene
units. The computed results of fault slip measurements along the
MF (S9) (Fig. 11 and Table 1) define relatively steeply plunging
1 axes (78◦ ), but sub-horizontal 2 axes (12◦ ). The orientation
of 3 axes is 187◦ /02◦ . Along the strike of the HFZ, the computed
results define an approximately vertical 1 plunging at 87◦ . The
2 and 3 are almost horizontal, plunging at 01◦ and 03◦ , and
trending at 330◦ and 060◦ , respectively (S10 and S11) (Fig. 11 and
Table 1). The stress field orientations using the observed slip surfaces along the strike of the BeFZ define relatively steeply dipping
1 , plunging at 77◦ , whereas the 2 and 3 axes have attitudes
of 315◦ /12◦ and 046◦ /12◦ , respectively. Sites 13 and 14, comprising eleven fault-slip measurements from the KeFZ indicate a pure
extensional regime with a well constrained, steep and NE–SW
1 orientation. The calculated principles stress axes, 1 , 2 , and
3 have attitudes 160◦ /85◦ , 292◦ /03◦ , 022◦ /04◦ , respectively. The
kinematic structures collected along the strike of the DFZ are characterised by sub-vertical 1 trending at 248◦ , whereas the 2 and
3 axes are very slight and calculated as 151◦ /02◦ and 060◦ /17◦ ,
respectively (S15) (Fig. 11 and Table 1). We used kinematic data
from the SF at site 16 (Fig. 11 and Table 1). The orientations of the
computed principles stresses are as follows: 1 is sub-vertical and
oriented as 016◦ /69◦ , 2 almost horizontal, and 3 sub-horizontal
and oriented as 109◦ /01◦ and 199◦ /21◦ , respectively. The results
suggest that the NW–SE trending oblique to normal faulting is consistent with a NE–SW extensional stress regime ( = 0.401–0.557)
except for the BeFZ and SF, where transtensional stress regime was
operating ( = 0.860–0.887).
4. Discussion
Variation in palaeomagnetic directions and vertical axis rotation in the NE–SW trending İzmir-Balıkesir Transfer Zone were
previously documented from Dikili, Foça, the Karaburun Peninsula and the Yuntdağı area in Neogene volcano-sedimentary rocks
(Kissel et al., 1986a,b, 1989; Kissel and Laj, 1988; Orbay et al., 2000;
van Hinsbergen et al., 2010; Kondopoulou et al., 2011), while evidence for variation in the stress pattern of the zone were only
documented from the Kocaçay Basin, located to the south of the
Manisa Basin (Sözbilir et al., 2011). Its formation is attributed
to ‘wrench-dominated transtension’, which activated the basin’s
NE–SW-striking boundary faults as right-lateral strike-slip structures, and then transition to extension dominated deformation.
The authors suggest kinematic connections between the basinbounding right lateral strike-slip fault with the E–W-striking
detachment fault of the Gediz Graben, where pure extension has
operated since Miocene time. The presence of the pre-existing İBTZ
may lead to the partitioning of oblique rifting into contemporaneous domains of wrench- and extension-dominated transtension.
The origins of this segmentation and segment boundary zones
may be attributed to the influence of basement structure inherited
from the transformed nature of the zone during the late Cretaceous. When the NE–SW trending pre-existing zone undergoes
reactivation under slightly oblique N–S extension, this leads to the
development of zones of transtension. We thus prefer to include
the Manisa Basin in the middle part of the zone where wrench- to
extension-dominated transtension has occurred since the Miocene
time (Fig. 12).
As documented by Dewey et al. (1998), Dewey (2002), and
De Paola et al. (2005a,b), transtensional strains are characterised
by complex relationships between finite and infinitesimal strain
axes that critically depend on the angle ˛ between the regional
displacement and the deformation zone boundary faults. Extension dominated transtension (20◦ < ˛ < 90◦ ) is comparable to the
case of orthogonal extension (˛ = 90◦ ). However, at low angles
of divergence (˛ < 20◦ ), wrench-dominated transtension becomes
dominant. Along the Gediz Graben, there are two distinct deformation zones. In the eastern and central part of the graben there
is a zone of approximately orthogonal extension (˛ = 65–90◦ ),
passing westward into a zone of wrench-dominated transtension
(˛ = 20–30◦ ). The latter corresponds to an average angle (˛) of
∼25◦ , which is at the transition between extension-dominated and
wrench-dominated transtension.
The Neogene evolution of the Gediz Graben has alongstrike variations in terms of basin-fill and basin bounding-faults
(Fig. 12). The eastern and middle part of the graben evolved as a
131
half-graben with an active southern margin through the entire
Miocene, developing into a graben as a result of post-Miocene
faulting of the northern margin (Emre, 1996; Koçyiğit et al., 1999;
Sözbilir, 2001; Çiftçi and Bozkurt, 2009). Three depocentres (named
as the Alaşehir, Salihli and Turgutlu sub-basins by Çiftçi and
Bozkurt, 2009) have been developing in the middle and eastern part
of the Gediz Graben, and have become splayed into three branches
towards the west, namely the Kemalpaşa, Manisa and Gölmarmara
basins.
The graben-fill in the Alaşehir depocentre was grouped into
three major units with major unconformities in between: (1) folded
and normal to reverse faulted terrigenous and coal-bearing rocks
of early to middle Miocene age that lie in low-angle fault contact
with the older metamorphic units of the Menderes Massif, (2) tilted
to normal faulted middle to upper Miocene fluvial to lacustrine
sediments, and (3) Plio-Quaternary alluvial to fluvial sediments
deposited in front of E–W-trending rift-mode, high-angle normal
faults (Koçyiğit et al., 1999; Bozkurt and Sözbilir, 2004; Çiftçi and
Bozkurt, 2008, 2009).
Further west, the Alaşehir depocentre is separated by a
NNE–SSW striking transfer fault from the Salihli depocentre (Çiftçi
and Bozkurt, 2009). The Miocene sedimentary fill in the Salihli
and Turgutlu depocentres was represented by alluvial to fluvial
sedimentary units capped by a lacustrine limestone unit at the
top. The Miocene sedimentary fill is in faulted contact with the
underlying metamorphic rocks of the Menderes Massif, which is
cut by synextensional Salihli and Turgutlu granitoids. However, in
the western part of the Gediz Graben, in the Manisa Basin, there
was a NE–SW trending volcano-sedimentary basin that was cut by
a NE–SW trending volcanic ridge during the early Miocene. During the late Miocene, the area was a lacustrine environment that
was bounded from the west by the early–middle Miocene Yuntdağ
Volcanic High Range.
When the middle and eastern part of the Gediz Graben underwent top-to-the-N–NE pure extensional deformation, the western
part of the graben, where the Manisa and Kemalpaşa basins
are located, was formed under the control of wrench-dominated
transtensional deformation. During this time, I-type Salihli and
Turgutlu granitoids were intruded into the footwall metamorphic rocks of the Gediz detachment fault (Sözbilir, 2001; Emre
and Sözbilir, 1997; Hetzel et al., 1995; Öner et al., 2010). The
intrusion time and cooling ages of the synextensional magmatism
were reported by Hetzel et al. (1995) as an amphibole isochron
(40Ar/39Ar) with ages of 19.5 ± 1.4 Ma, and the 40Ar/39Ar biotite
plateau with ages of 12.2 ± 0.4–13.1 ± 0.2 Ma, respectively. In addition, U–Pb crystallisation ages of 15.0 ± 0.3 Ma from allanite in
the Salihli granitoid reported by Glodny and Hetzel (2007), and
Th–Pb ion microprobe monazite ages ranging from 21.7 ± 4.5 Ma
to 9.6 ± 1.6 Ma (±1) obtained from the same granitoids by Catlos
et al. (2010) suggest that the timing of ongoing extensional
deformation associated with crustal exhumation along the Gediz
detachment fault in the middle part of the Gediz Graben was coeval
with the wrench-dominated transtensional deformation in the
western part of the Gediz Graben, where the study area is located.
The timing of the latest early Miocene to late Miocene exhumation
of the granitoid intrusions in the footwall of the Gediz detachment
coincides with a period of widespread volcanism between 21.5 and
9 Ma in the NE-trending transtensional basins located within the
İBTZ.
The post-Miocene neotectonic evolution of the Gediz Graben
also has along-strike variations in terms of fault pattern, and
kinematic and palaeostress analysis. Post-Miocene faulting in the
eastern and middle part of the graben is characterised by approximately pure dip-slip normal faulting, while in the western part,
where the Manisa Basin is located, various-striking strike-slip faults
are dominant in addition to dip- to oblique-slip normal faults.
132
Fig. 12. Lateral variation in stratigraphic architecture and predicted deformation pattern along the Gediz Graben. Note several depocentres linked with transfer faults along
the Gediz Graben. While continental sedimentation is coeval with synextensional granite in the central Gediz Graben, continental sedimentation is coeval with volcanic
activity in the NE–SW trending zone of transtensional deformation in the western part of the Gediz Graben. Note the deformational pattern between Sarıgöl and Turgutlu
is pure extensional, while west of Turgutlu wrench- to extensional-dominated transtension become dominant. 3 extension direction is taken from Bozkurt and Sözbilir
(2004), Çiftçi and Bozkurt (2010) and Çiftçi (2012) for the Alaşehir area, Koçyiğit et al. (1999) and Sözbilir (2001, 2002) for the Salihli area, Sözbilir et al. (2011) for the Kocaçay
area, Uzel and Sözbilir (2008) for Cumaovası area and the present study for the Manisa area. The angle of ˛ corresponds to an angle between the regional extension direction
and deformation zone boundary faults.
Palaeostress analysis of the post-Miocene faults along the Gediz
Graben suggests that most of the normal faults in the eastern and
middle part of the Gediz Graben were formed under the control of
N–S to NNE–SSW extension, which is compatible with the regional
N–S extension. However, in the western part of the graben, normal
faults were formed under the control of NE–SW extension. This may
be explained by clockwise rotation of the 3 with in the İBTZ. The
rotation of the 3 from NNW–SSE to NE–SW direction seems to be
related to the activation of the southern strand of the NAFZ. The
same clockwise rotation of the stress tensor has been computed
for a conjugated system of strike-slip faults present in the Miocene
volcanic outcrops south of the Manisa city centre (Uzel et al., 2012).
The moment tensor solutions for recent earthquakes that occurred
in the area suggest that strike-slip motion along NE–SW trending
faults coexists with dip-slip E–W trending faults in the frame of an
extensional regime related to NE–SW crustal stretching.
The approximately N–S extension in the WAEP has been modified about 5–7 Ma (Lips et al., 2001; Armijo et al., 1999). This is
supported by a 40Ar/39Ar laser-probe analysis on synextensional
muscovites in the footwall rocks of the Gediz detachment fault,
which yielded ages of 6.7 ± 1.1 Ma and 6.6 ± 2.4 Ma, constraining
the timing of late-stage extension and the reactivation of the Gediz
detachment fault (Lips et al., 2001). Gessner et al. (2001) also presented two zircon and apatite fission-track ages of 5.2 ± 0.3 Ma
from the Salihli granitoid that show accelerated cooling rates in
the central Menderes Massif in the Pliocene. This data indicate
that the exhumation of the central Menderes Massif under the
footwall of the Gediz detachment fault was coeval with the PlioQuaternary wrench to extension-dominated transtension in the
study area. This may be corresponded to the westward propagation
of the NAFZ and its penetration into the WAEP (Flerit et al., 2004).
The mapped conjugate strike-slip faults in the intermediate zone
may result from the horizontal shortening component of strike-slip
dominated deformation. From late Pliocene onwards, the strikeslip dominated area may have been reworked by later extensional
deformation, a new tectonic phase producing grabens, which has
taken place in the early Pleistocene. The extension segmented the
Gediz Graben at its western end into three E–W to NW–SE trending
basins (the Kemalpaşa, Manisa, and Gölmarmara basins). The previously documented slip surfaces of the Manisa Fault contain two
sets of striations that suggest an early phase of sinistral strike-slip
and a subsequent normal-slip movements (S17, Fig. 11) (Bozkurt
and Sözbilir, 2006). The first phase was attributed to: (i) approximately E–W-directed compression that commenced during either
(?) early–middle Pliocene time or (ii) the current extensional tectonics and consequent modern graben formation in southwest
Turkey that initiated during the Plio-Quaternary. The final geometry of the Manisa Fault is thus the combined result of reactivation
developed under the control of wrench- to extension-dominated
transtension.
Two distinctly oriented folds have developed in the Miocene
sedimentary fill of the Gediz Graben—E–W and NE–SW trending
folds. The origin of E–W trending folding in the ancient basinfill units exposed in the eastern and central part of the Gediz
Graben has been debated extensively. It is thought either to be
related to extensional fault-related folding (e.g., Seyitoğlu et al.,
2000; Sözbilir, 2002), or to a short-lived event of contraction (e.g.,
Koçyiğit et al., 1999). According to Dumont et al. (1979), the early
Pliocene contractional phase affecting the WAEP formed due to
the subduction of the Aegean Arc. In the northeastern part of the
Manisa Basin, Kaya et al. (2004) documents the results of geological mapping, and structural and stratigraphical analysis from the
Halitpaşa Half Graben. Their field-based studies suggest that the
Halitpaşa transpression zone is a NW–SE-trending dextral wrenchdominated fault zone, which is also attributed to the known early
Pliocene compressive pulse of the Aegean Arc. However, the NE–SW
trending folds that are documented in the ancient basin fill of the
Manisa Basin can be attributed to wrench-dominated deformation
operating during the Pliocene. From early Pleistocene until today,
NE–SW trending extension has resulted in the formation of modern basin fill deposits under the control of E–W to NW–SE trending
dip- to oblique-slip normal faults associated with NE–SW trending
transfer faults. The change in the stress pattern in the WAEP has
also been reported by Dumont et al. (1979), Angelier et al. (1981),
Zanchi and Angelier (1993) in early Pleistocene age.
5. Conclusion
The Manisa Basin, which is subsidiary to the Gediz Graben,
exhibits the deformation characteristics of both large-scale strikeslip and dip-slip normal fault zones. While the eastern and middle
part of the Gediz Graben is represented by N–S trending pure
extension since the Miocene time, its western part is shaped by
a NE-striking major strike-slip dominated zone, namely the İzmirBalıkesir Transfer Zone (İBTZ). Miocene to Quaternary evolution of
the zone within the study area is characterised by variable wrench
to extension dominated transtension, and has resulted in a complex
fault pattern.
Late Cenozoic evolution of the Manisa Basin is recorded
by two basin-fill units separated by a regional angular unconformity. The ancient basin-fill is made up of a folded and
normal-to-reverse faulted and strike-slip-faulted early–middle
Miocene volcano-sedimentary sequence characterised by coalbearing clastic to carbonate sediments (Kızıldere Group), andesitic
pyroclastic and lava flows (Yuntdağı volcanic unit) and the unconformably overlying late Miocene limestone-dominated lacustrine
carbonates (Karadağ Group). The younger modern basin-fill is
represented by the Quaternary Bahadır Formation comprising fluvial terrace deposits, early–middle Pleistocene continental clastics
of the Turgutlu Formation, alluvial/colluvial sediments of late
Pleistocene–early Holocene Emlakdere Formation, and Holocene
alluvium.
Two main structural stages have been recorded in the uplifted
late Miocene to Holocene sediments by fault motions: the older D1
stage consists of strike-slip deformation that is characterised by
a NNW–SSE horizontal 3 and a vertical 2 during the Pliocene,
while the younger D2 stage shows an extension with a NE–SW
trending 3 and a vertical 1 that is attributed to a extensional tectonic regime commenced in the Quaternary. NE-striking
133
strike-slip deformation led to wrench faulting, with subordinate
folding and reverse faulting within the fault zone in the ancient
basin during the Pliocene (D1 phase). At the same time, the SW
motion of the WAEP and the NAR produced shortening into a
folded and faulted intermediate zone between the KFZ and the
TF. Later, the Pliocene D1 structures (folds, reverse and wrench
faults) were overprinted by early Pleistocene extensional tectonics
characterised by NE–SW horizontal 3 and vertical 1 . The 3 direction was rotated from NNW–SSE to NE–SW during the Quaternary.
In addition, the axes of intermediate and maximum shortening
switched position in the vertical plane during the early Pleistocene
stage. Field evidence also suggests that some older strike-slip faults
may be reactivated as oblique-slip normal faults due to a switch
from strike-slip to extension-dominated deformation.
Acknowledgements
This work is a part of Ph.D. thesis undertaken by Çağlar Özkaymak at the Institute of Natural and Applied Sciences, Dokuz
Eylül University, Turkey. This research was supported by the
Dokuz Eylül University Research Foundation (project number:
DEU-BAP-2006.KB.FEN.008) and partly by TUBITAK (project number: ÇAYDAG-109Y044). We are also grateful to the special issue
guest editor Prof. Erdin Bozkurt and anonymous reviewers for their
comments and improvements to the manuscript. The paper was
edited by Editage.
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